I couldn't imagine why anyone would supplement with sodium. We do so much "supplementation" already with our salt shakers. All that shaking is linked to hypertension, but overall, when food is salted lightly, the salting may not be all bad.
When you eat salt, it guards you against sodium deficiency. The deficiency is not as likely now, but in earlier days it may have been an issue and continues to be a problem with anorexia.(1) The deficiency's symptoms include nausea, muscle atrophy, poor growth and weight loss.(1p380)
Plus, if the salt is iodized, then it helps guard against iodine deficiency. Iodine is extremely variable in foods so having it as part of salt is beneficial.(1p468) The thyroid collects the iodine, in its ionic form iodide, and uses it for genesis of hormones.(1p418)
Reference
1. Gropper, S.S., Smith, J.L. & Groff, J.L. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism, 4th ed; 2005. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Saturday, October 18, 2008
Friday, October 10, 2008
Vitamin Supplementation Debate
Vitamin supplementation may have its place in clinical nutrition, but confusion of how or when to supplement can ultimately harm the consumer.(1) The confusion arises from "extreme" views of healthcare practitioners who say supplementation is not necessary at all and those who push for too much supplementation.(1p119) Non-credentialed experts and vitamins manufacturers interested in making profits may also lead consumers in the wrong paths.(1p119)
Pros of Supplementation
As a person ages or changes his or her diet or environment, vitamin needs can change resulting in a potential need for help from vitamin supplementation.(1p119)
Supplementation can remove the guesswork out of making sure enough of a certain vitamin is in the diet. A woman, for example, who has a need for additional folic acid during times of pregnancy may choose supplementation rather than attempting to make significant changes to diet.(1p119) A child or adolescent can also be given supplements to be sure of healthy growth despite a reluctance to eat a balanced diet.(1p119)
Supplementation can be used to prevent clinical issues.(1p119) An example includes infants given vitamin K and D and trace minerals iron and fluoride.(p119)
Impaired nutrient absorption, storage and usage can be helped by supplementation.(1p119) An example includes elderly who may may need vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine and cobalamin.(1p119)
Lifestyle choices may influence need of supplementation.(1p120) Use of oral contraceptives, restricted diets, exercise programs, smoking, alcohol and caffeine can all generate situations of vitamin deficiency due to insufficient dietary intake and/or interference with absorption of vitamins.(1p120)
Certain diseases may create a situation where a person could benefit from supplementation.(1p120) Especially in cases of long-term illness, supplementation can be used to meet increased vitamin needs to support the body.(1p120)
Cons of Supplementation
While there are many "pros" to vitamin supplementation, the "cons" can be equal in detriment. A large amount of a certain vitamin can be toxic such as the case of retinol, which has potential of causing liver or brain damage.(1p120)
Megadoses of vitamins can also lead to a deficiency of another vitamin due to how they work together in the body.(1p120) An "artificially induced" deficiency can result when a person suddenly stops taking a large amount of a certain vitamin, such as infants who develop scurvy because their mothers took megadoses of vitamin C during pregnancy.(1p121)
A non-credentialed "expert" or vitamin manufacturer may miss these points as he or she recommends or markets certain vitamins to unsuspecting customers.
Conclusion
Proper vitamin supplementation should be done with wisdom and care. Supplementation principles include reading labels carefully, understanding that large doses can be harmful, that supplement use is governed by individual needs, that all nutrients work together, and that food remains the best source of nutrients.(1p121) Lastly, sound knowledge and evidence should guide reasons for supplementation.(1p121)
Reference
1. Nix, S. Williams' Basic Nutrition &Diet Therapy, 12th ed, Elsvier Mosby, 2001; 119-121.
Pros of Supplementation
As a person ages or changes his or her diet or environment, vitamin needs can change resulting in a potential need for help from vitamin supplementation.(1p119)
Supplementation can remove the guesswork out of making sure enough of a certain vitamin is in the diet. A woman, for example, who has a need for additional folic acid during times of pregnancy may choose supplementation rather than attempting to make significant changes to diet.(1p119) A child or adolescent can also be given supplements to be sure of healthy growth despite a reluctance to eat a balanced diet.(1p119)
Supplementation can be used to prevent clinical issues.(1p119) An example includes infants given vitamin K and D and trace minerals iron and fluoride.(p119)
Impaired nutrient absorption, storage and usage can be helped by supplementation.(1p119) An example includes elderly who may may need vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine and cobalamin.(1p119)
Lifestyle choices may influence need of supplementation.(1p120) Use of oral contraceptives, restricted diets, exercise programs, smoking, alcohol and caffeine can all generate situations of vitamin deficiency due to insufficient dietary intake and/or interference with absorption of vitamins.(1p120)
Certain diseases may create a situation where a person could benefit from supplementation.(1p120) Especially in cases of long-term illness, supplementation can be used to meet increased vitamin needs to support the body.(1p120)
Cons of Supplementation
While there are many "pros" to vitamin supplementation, the "cons" can be equal in detriment. A large amount of a certain vitamin can be toxic such as the case of retinol, which has potential of causing liver or brain damage.(1p120)
Megadoses of vitamins can also lead to a deficiency of another vitamin due to how they work together in the body.(1p120) An "artificially induced" deficiency can result when a person suddenly stops taking a large amount of a certain vitamin, such as infants who develop scurvy because their mothers took megadoses of vitamin C during pregnancy.(1p121)
A non-credentialed "expert" or vitamin manufacturer may miss these points as he or she recommends or markets certain vitamins to unsuspecting customers.
Conclusion
Proper vitamin supplementation should be done with wisdom and care. Supplementation principles include reading labels carefully, understanding that large doses can be harmful, that supplement use is governed by individual needs, that all nutrients work together, and that food remains the best source of nutrients.(1p121) Lastly, sound knowledge and evidence should guide reasons for supplementation.(1p121)
Reference
1. Nix, S. Williams' Basic Nutrition &Diet Therapy, 12th ed, Elsvier Mosby, 2001; 119-121.
Saturday, October 4, 2008
Health Starts in The Gut
Going in with the gut, I'm led to deduce that health begins exactly there.
The gut and other parts of the gastrointestinal system make up the basic conduit of nutrition.(1) Food eaten is broken down by the system into simpler substances, nutrients are absorbed and transported to cells, and then are metabolized for creation of new body substances or for energy. (1p58)
Clinical Applications of Digestion, Metabolism and Absorption
Clinical application begins with the knowledge of how the process of digestion works. A nutritionist can then begin applying solutions.(1p67) To help a patient limit burping, a nutritionist can suggest he or she avoid nervously gulping down carbonated beverages through a straw.(1p67) To limit flatulence in a patient, the nutritionist can recommend he or she limit fiber and slowly reintroduce it in the diet or take a lactase supplement before consuming milk.(1p67)
Nutritionists can use diet therapy to also encourage absorption and metabolism of nutrients. An example is inclusion of non-digestible oligosaccharides to the diet. Understanding how these nutrients affect growth of intestinal flora helps a nutritionist encourage proper mineral absorption such as calcium in a patient.(2, 3, 4)
Clinical Applications of Energy Balance
Energy balance is a chief factor when nutritionists consider diet therapy. The food the body digests is partly converted to energy through cell metabolism.(1p74) Nutritionists should know how foods affect energy via each kilocalorie present.(1p75) For proper health, the body must have a sufficient amount of kilocalories from food for fuel and function, but not so much daily that would lead to gain of too much weight.(1p75, 81)
The amount of kilocalories for proper energy balance requires evaluation of daily energy requirements. Nutritionists would consider the body’s uses of energy, namely resting metabolic rate, physical activity and thermic effect of food.(1p81) A calculation of total energy output can then determine how many calories a patient should receive.(1p81)
Basing clinical diet therapy on energy balance as well as digestion, absorption and metabolism, the patient is adequately served and sure to receive best results.
References
1. Nix, Staci, Williams' Basic Nutrition &Diet Therapy, 12th edition, Elsvier Mosby, 2001; 57-86.
2. Kolida, S & Gibson. Prebiotic capacity of inulin-type fructans. In: Inulin and oligofructose: Health benefits and claims-A critical review. J of Nutrition. November 2007; 137 (suppl):11S.
3. Scholz-Ahrens, KE & Schrezenmeir, J. Inulin and oligofructose and mineral metabolism: The evidence from animal trials. In: Inulin and oligofructose: Health benefits and claims-A critical review. J of Nutrition. November 2007; 137 (suppl):11S.
4. Abrams, SA, Griffin, J, and Hawthorne, KM. Young adolescents who respond to an inulin-type fructan substantially increase total absorbed calcium and daily calcium accretion to the skeleton. In: Inulin and oligofructose: Health benefits and claims-A critical review. J of Nutrition. November 2007; 137 (suppl):11S.
The gut and other parts of the gastrointestinal system make up the basic conduit of nutrition.(1) Food eaten is broken down by the system into simpler substances, nutrients are absorbed and transported to cells, and then are metabolized for creation of new body substances or for energy. (1p58)
Clinical Applications of Digestion, Metabolism and Absorption
Clinical application begins with the knowledge of how the process of digestion works. A nutritionist can then begin applying solutions.(1p67) To help a patient limit burping, a nutritionist can suggest he or she avoid nervously gulping down carbonated beverages through a straw.(1p67) To limit flatulence in a patient, the nutritionist can recommend he or she limit fiber and slowly reintroduce it in the diet or take a lactase supplement before consuming milk.(1p67)
Nutritionists can use diet therapy to also encourage absorption and metabolism of nutrients. An example is inclusion of non-digestible oligosaccharides to the diet. Understanding how these nutrients affect growth of intestinal flora helps a nutritionist encourage proper mineral absorption such as calcium in a patient.(2, 3, 4)
Clinical Applications of Energy Balance
Energy balance is a chief factor when nutritionists consider diet therapy. The food the body digests is partly converted to energy through cell metabolism.(1p74) Nutritionists should know how foods affect energy via each kilocalorie present.(1p75) For proper health, the body must have a sufficient amount of kilocalories from food for fuel and function, but not so much daily that would lead to gain of too much weight.(1p75, 81)
The amount of kilocalories for proper energy balance requires evaluation of daily energy requirements. Nutritionists would consider the body’s uses of energy, namely resting metabolic rate, physical activity and thermic effect of food.(1p81) A calculation of total energy output can then determine how many calories a patient should receive.(1p81)
Basing clinical diet therapy on energy balance as well as digestion, absorption and metabolism, the patient is adequately served and sure to receive best results.
References
1. Nix, Staci, Williams' Basic Nutrition &Diet Therapy, 12th edition, Elsvier Mosby, 2001; 57-86.
2. Kolida, S & Gibson. Prebiotic capacity of inulin-type fructans. In: Inulin and oligofructose: Health benefits and claims-A critical review. J of Nutrition. November 2007; 137 (suppl):11S.
3. Scholz-Ahrens, KE & Schrezenmeir, J. Inulin and oligofructose and mineral metabolism: The evidence from animal trials. In: Inulin and oligofructose: Health benefits and claims-A critical review. J of Nutrition. November 2007; 137 (suppl):11S.
4. Abrams, SA, Griffin, J, and Hawthorne, KM. Young adolescents who respond to an inulin-type fructan substantially increase total absorbed calcium and daily calcium accretion to the skeleton. In: Inulin and oligofructose: Health benefits and claims-A critical review. J of Nutrition. November 2007; 137 (suppl):11S.
Want a reason to get drunk?
An incredibly risky one? If you happen to drink methanol, then you'll end up in the emergency room with an IV intended to get you drunk as fast as possible.1 2 If the treatment isn't applied immediately you could end up blind or worse.1,2p426
Methanol may be good for certain racing cars, but it's toxic to human beings because the body's liver oxidizes it to produce formaldehyde.2p387,426 This particular aldehyde is highly reactive in the body, damaging cells and their vital proteins including DNA.2p426,4 Even the fumes of formaldehyde may be cancerous.1,3 Formaldehyde in the body will lead to loss of eyesight, respiratory failure, convulsions and death.2p426
To keep the liver from oxidizing methanol to formaldehyde, the ER personnel will use ethanol as a distraction.2p426 Ethanol, the by-product of yeast found in alcoholic drinks, is oxidized by the liver using the same enzyme that oxidizes methanol.2p387,426 In fact, it is preferred by the enzyme, which helps minimize production of formaldehyde through "competitive inhibition".2p426
The product of ethanol oxidation is acetaldehyde, which is less toxic.2p426 Acetaldehyde will give a person a hangover in the morning and too much over time can lead to fatty liver disease, but its effects are nowhere near those of formaldehyde.2p430 The liver detoxifies acetaldehyde to etanoic acid and then used as an caloric energy source.2p430
1. Antizol. Methanol poisoning overview. Available at: http://www.antizol.com/mpoisono.htm. Accessed on September 30, 2008.
2. Denniston, KJ, Topping, JJ & Caret, RL. General, Organic, And Biochemistry, 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2007:426.
3. National Cancer Institute. Formaldehyde and cancer: Questions and answers. Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/risk/formaldehyde. Accessed on September 30, 2008.
4. Salariino, AJ, Wiley, JC, Lechner, JF, Grafstrom, RC, LaVeck, M & Harris, CC. Effects of Formaldehyde, Acetaldehyde, Benzoyl Peroxide, and Hydrogen Peroxide on Cultured Normal Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells. Cancer Research, vol 45; 1985 June. Available at: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/45/6/2522?ck=nck. Accessed on September 30,2008.
Methanol may be good for certain racing cars, but it's toxic to human beings because the body's liver oxidizes it to produce formaldehyde.2p387,426 This particular aldehyde is highly reactive in the body, damaging cells and their vital proteins including DNA.2p426,4 Even the fumes of formaldehyde may be cancerous.1,3 Formaldehyde in the body will lead to loss of eyesight, respiratory failure, convulsions and death.2p426
To keep the liver from oxidizing methanol to formaldehyde, the ER personnel will use ethanol as a distraction.2p426 Ethanol, the by-product of yeast found in alcoholic drinks, is oxidized by the liver using the same enzyme that oxidizes methanol.2p387,426 In fact, it is preferred by the enzyme, which helps minimize production of formaldehyde through "competitive inhibition".2p426
The product of ethanol oxidation is acetaldehyde, which is less toxic.2p426 Acetaldehyde will give a person a hangover in the morning and too much over time can lead to fatty liver disease, but its effects are nowhere near those of formaldehyde.2p430 The liver detoxifies acetaldehyde to etanoic acid and then used as an caloric energy source.2p430
1. Antizol. Methanol poisoning overview. Available at: http://www.antizol.com/mpoisono.htm. Accessed on September 30, 2008.
2. Denniston, KJ, Topping, JJ & Caret, RL. General, Organic, And Biochemistry, 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2007:426.
3. National Cancer Institute. Formaldehyde and cancer: Questions and answers. Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/risk/formaldehyde. Accessed on September 30, 2008.
4. Salariino, AJ, Wiley, JC, Lechner, JF, Grafstrom, RC, LaVeck, M & Harris, CC. Effects of Formaldehyde, Acetaldehyde, Benzoyl Peroxide, and Hydrogen Peroxide on Cultured Normal Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells. Cancer Research, vol 45; 1985 June. Available at: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/45/6/2522?ck=nck. Accessed on September 30,2008.
Women and Asians can't hold their alcohol as well as European men
If you thought it interesting that women have less of aldehyde dehydrogenase, then you'll no doubt be interested to know that many Asians have a deficiency.(1) This is why Chinese, Japanese and Koreans can be much more sensitive to alcohol than Europeans and Americans of European ancestry.(1) You'll notice that Asians with this deficiency are susceptible to alcohol-induced flushing.(1)
The adaptation that those of European ancestry have to be able to handle alcohol may be due differences of water intake in the continents, according to Sharon Moalem, Ph.D.(2) To reduce disease by avoiding pathogens in the water, early Asians boiled water for drinking tea.(2) Early Europeans, however, may have used fermentation so the alcohol would kill the pathogens.(2)
1. Wall, TL, Peterson, CM, Peterson, KP, Johnson, ML, Thomasson, HR, et al. Alcohol Metabolism in Asian-American Men with Genetic Polymorphisms of Aldehyde Dehydrogenase. Annals of Internal Medicine; September 2007:127(5)376-379. Available at http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/127/5/376. Accessed on October 4, 2008.
2. Moalem, S. Survival of the Sickest: The Surprising Connections Between Disease and Longevity; 2006. New York: HarperCollins.
The adaptation that those of European ancestry have to be able to handle alcohol may be due differences of water intake in the continents, according to Sharon Moalem, Ph.D.(2) To reduce disease by avoiding pathogens in the water, early Asians boiled water for drinking tea.(2) Early Europeans, however, may have used fermentation so the alcohol would kill the pathogens.(2)
1. Wall, TL, Peterson, CM, Peterson, KP, Johnson, ML, Thomasson, HR, et al. Alcohol Metabolism in Asian-American Men with Genetic Polymorphisms of Aldehyde Dehydrogenase. Annals of Internal Medicine; September 2007:127(5)376-379. Available at http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/127/5/376. Accessed on October 4, 2008.
2. Moalem, S. Survival of the Sickest: The Surprising Connections Between Disease and Longevity; 2006. New York: HarperCollins.
Sunday, September 21, 2008
Why we need fats
Nothing else can stimulate the taste buds quite like the smell of fat. The human body comes adapted with a special affinity for this resource, according to evolutionary nutrition researchers S. Boyd Eaton, MD, and Stanley B. Eaton III (a father-son duo) (1998). Dr. Eaton and Eaton suggest early hominids eventually ate a greater amount of nuts and seeds and later, around 2.5 million years ago, humans on a hunter-gatherer diet might have preferred animal fat, specifically supplied in the brain and marrow—an alteration of diet that may have been a factor in supporting a larger brain (1998). This history of fat in the diet helps shape understanding of how vital fat is for the diet.
The body needs fat for various functions as well as other fat-related substances in the family of lipids. Most lipids in the body are of a type called triglycerides—three fatty acids with a glycerol backbone—which act as concentrated sources of energy stored in greater amounts in adipose tissue cells (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006, p. 46). Triglycerides are used as a “back-up” fuel source, as insulation to help maintain body temperature, and as “protective padding for vital organs” (Nix, 2005, pp. 34 & 40). The major lipid that makes up cell membranes is the phospholipid—two fatty acids with a glycerol backbone—along with other fat-related substances cholesterol and lipoproteins (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006, p. 46). Multiple types of lipids also play a role as a protective covering for nerve cells called a myelin sheath, which is also important for increasing speed of nerve impulses (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006, p. 410). To maintain proper amount of lipids in the body, dietary fat is important.
Dietary fat, however, occurs in various ways. The “building blocks” of fats are fatty acids, which can consist of short-, medium- or long-chains of carbon atoms with a methyl group on one end and carboxyl group on the other (Nix, 2005, p. 31). The fatty acids can also be “saturated’ or “unsaturated” (including polyunsaturated) depending on their amount of hydrogen atoms (p. 31). The saturated are generally from animal origin and the unsaturated from plant origin, although there are plants that contain saturated fat and animals will have unsaturated fat (p. 31-33). Essential fatty acids are specifically types of polyunsaturated fats that are necessary for the body (p. 33). Trans fats occur when unsaturated fats are chemically “saturated” to make them more solid at room temperature (p.35). With the various types of fatty acids, confusion may lie in how to best utilize food with proper amounts of each in the diet.
Too much fat is harmful, but so is not enough. When the diet is high in fat over time, higher incidence of chronic diseases (Nix, 2006, p. 39). Heart disease is a good example being the leading killer of men and women in the U.S.A. According to the American Heart Association (AHA), great amounts of fat, especially of saturated fat and trans fat, contribute to obesity and heart disease (2008). A low-fat diet, then can help protect the heart. However, when the body does not take in sufficient fat, however, essential fatty acid deficiency can occur (Nix, 2006, p. 39). Essential fatty acid deficiency is rare, but signs include scaly dermatitis, alopecia, thrombocytopenia and growth retardation (Morley, 2007). The key to the health is a correct balance.
Fat intake in the right amounts as well as the right kinds leads to a healthy lifestyle. U.S. Dietary Guidelines recommend no more than 20% to 35% of total fat, no more than 10% calories from saturated fat, and no more than 300 mg/day of dietary cholesterol (Nix, 39, 2006). AHA adds that it is best to avoid saturated and trans fats, replacing them with mono- and polyunsaturated fats “while still limiting” total fat (2008). Of the polyunsaturated, it’s important to remember that two are essential—omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids.
Omega-3 is the more important of the two. In 2002 AHA began recommending people without heart disease consume fish at least twice a week to help maintain a health heart as long as a close watch was instituted over intake of fish contaminants (e.g. mercury) (Kris-Etherton et al). Further, AHA recommends those with heart disease take at least 1 g per day of EPA/DHA omega-3 fatty acids in capsule form (to avoid contaminants of eating fish), and for 2 to 4 grams daily in capsule form for those who needed to lower triglycerides (Kris-Etherton et al). In addition, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) put out a qualified claim about “reduced risk of coronary artery disease” for any whole food, packaged food or dietary supplement that contained both EPA/DHA omega-3 fatty acids (2004). The information suggests that a low-fat diet with an emphasis on polyunsaturated oils especially omega-3 fatty acids is best for health. Since the brain is made up of mostly omega-3 fats, that would explain why hunter-gatherers preferred the brain on the menu.
References
American Heart Association. (2008, Sept 21). Face the Fats. Retrieved Sept. 17, 2008 from http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3046074.
Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008). Heart Disease. Retrieved Sept. 17, 2008 from http://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/.
Eaton, S.B. & Eaton, S.B. III, (1998). Evolution, diet and health. [Scientific Session – International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences in Williamsburg, VA]. Retrieved Sept. 17, 2008 from http://www.cast.uark.edu/local/icaes/conferences/wburg/posters/sboydeaton/eaton.htm.
Kris-Etherton, P.M., Harris, W.S., & Appel, L.J. (2002). Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Association, 106; 2747-2757. Retrieved Sept. 22 from http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/106/21/2747.
Morley, J.E. (2007, June). Essential Fatty Acid Deficiency. The Merck Manual for Healthcare Professionals. Retrieved Sept. 21 from http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec01/ch002/ch002d.html.
Nix, S. (2005). Williams’ Basic Nutrition & Diet Therapy, 12th ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.
Tortora, G.J., & Derrikson, B. (2006). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 11th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
U.S. Food and Drug Association (2004). FDA announces qualified health claims for omega-3 fatty acids. Retrieved on Sept. 21, 2008 from http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/news/2004/NEW01115.html
The body needs fat for various functions as well as other fat-related substances in the family of lipids. Most lipids in the body are of a type called triglycerides—three fatty acids with a glycerol backbone—which act as concentrated sources of energy stored in greater amounts in adipose tissue cells (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006, p. 46). Triglycerides are used as a “back-up” fuel source, as insulation to help maintain body temperature, and as “protective padding for vital organs” (Nix, 2005, pp. 34 & 40). The major lipid that makes up cell membranes is the phospholipid—two fatty acids with a glycerol backbone—along with other fat-related substances cholesterol and lipoproteins (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006, p. 46). Multiple types of lipids also play a role as a protective covering for nerve cells called a myelin sheath, which is also important for increasing speed of nerve impulses (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006, p. 410). To maintain proper amount of lipids in the body, dietary fat is important.
Dietary fat, however, occurs in various ways. The “building blocks” of fats are fatty acids, which can consist of short-, medium- or long-chains of carbon atoms with a methyl group on one end and carboxyl group on the other (Nix, 2005, p. 31). The fatty acids can also be “saturated’ or “unsaturated” (including polyunsaturated) depending on their amount of hydrogen atoms (p. 31). The saturated are generally from animal origin and the unsaturated from plant origin, although there are plants that contain saturated fat and animals will have unsaturated fat (p. 31-33). Essential fatty acids are specifically types of polyunsaturated fats that are necessary for the body (p. 33). Trans fats occur when unsaturated fats are chemically “saturated” to make them more solid at room temperature (p.35). With the various types of fatty acids, confusion may lie in how to best utilize food with proper amounts of each in the diet.
Too much fat is harmful, but so is not enough. When the diet is high in fat over time, higher incidence of chronic diseases (Nix, 2006, p. 39). Heart disease is a good example being the leading killer of men and women in the U.S.A. According to the American Heart Association (AHA), great amounts of fat, especially of saturated fat and trans fat, contribute to obesity and heart disease (2008). A low-fat diet, then can help protect the heart. However, when the body does not take in sufficient fat, however, essential fatty acid deficiency can occur (Nix, 2006, p. 39). Essential fatty acid deficiency is rare, but signs include scaly dermatitis, alopecia, thrombocytopenia and growth retardation (Morley, 2007). The key to the health is a correct balance.
Fat intake in the right amounts as well as the right kinds leads to a healthy lifestyle. U.S. Dietary Guidelines recommend no more than 20% to 35% of total fat, no more than 10% calories from saturated fat, and no more than 300 mg/day of dietary cholesterol (Nix, 39, 2006). AHA adds that it is best to avoid saturated and trans fats, replacing them with mono- and polyunsaturated fats “while still limiting” total fat (2008). Of the polyunsaturated, it’s important to remember that two are essential—omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids.
Omega-3 is the more important of the two. In 2002 AHA began recommending people without heart disease consume fish at least twice a week to help maintain a health heart as long as a close watch was instituted over intake of fish contaminants (e.g. mercury) (Kris-Etherton et al). Further, AHA recommends those with heart disease take at least 1 g per day of EPA/DHA omega-3 fatty acids in capsule form (to avoid contaminants of eating fish), and for 2 to 4 grams daily in capsule form for those who needed to lower triglycerides (Kris-Etherton et al). In addition, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) put out a qualified claim about “reduced risk of coronary artery disease” for any whole food, packaged food or dietary supplement that contained both EPA/DHA omega-3 fatty acids (2004). The information suggests that a low-fat diet with an emphasis on polyunsaturated oils especially omega-3 fatty acids is best for health. Since the brain is made up of mostly omega-3 fats, that would explain why hunter-gatherers preferred the brain on the menu.
References
American Heart Association. (2008, Sept 21). Face the Fats. Retrieved Sept. 17, 2008 from http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3046074.
Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008). Heart Disease. Retrieved Sept. 17, 2008 from http://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/.
Eaton, S.B. & Eaton, S.B. III, (1998). Evolution, diet and health. [Scientific Session – International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences in Williamsburg, VA]. Retrieved Sept. 17, 2008 from http://www.cast.uark.edu/local/icaes/conferences/wburg/posters/sboydeaton/eaton.htm.
Kris-Etherton, P.M., Harris, W.S., & Appel, L.J. (2002). Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Association, 106; 2747-2757. Retrieved Sept. 22 from http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/106/21/2747.
Morley, J.E. (2007, June). Essential Fatty Acid Deficiency. The Merck Manual for Healthcare Professionals. Retrieved Sept. 21 from http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec01/ch002/ch002d.html.
Nix, S. (2005). Williams’ Basic Nutrition & Diet Therapy, 12th ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.
Tortora, G.J., & Derrikson, B. (2006). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 11th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
U.S. Food and Drug Association (2004). FDA announces qualified health claims for omega-3 fatty acids. Retrieved on Sept. 21, 2008 from http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/news/2004/NEW01115.html
Brittle Bones of a Jedi Master
After leading the fight against the Galactic Alliance, Luke Skywalker might have found himself with a developed case of osteoporosis and kidney stones. That's because space travel diminishes bone loss and a rise of calcium in the blood, according to NASA researchers (Hullander & Barry, 2001). The reason for the bone loss is weightlessness.
When the body is weightless (or immobile), bone cells act differently. The International Osteoporosis Foundation states that astronauts and bedridden patients share a state in which they "can lose up to 15% of mineral density within three months" (Sochaczewski, 2006). According to NASA, the weightlessness upsets the balance of bone-building to bone destroying (Hullander & Barry, 2001.) Thirty million people on Earth who suffer from osteoporosis in the U.S.A. happen to be going through the same demineralization of the bone, although slower (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006, p. 189). The key to prevent osteoporosis on land and in space appears to be continual weight-bearing exercise on the body.
Once safe on the forest moon Endor, Luke should perform plenty of squats or he might begin to look more like Yoda.
References
Hullander, D. & Barry, P.L. (2001). Space Bones. Science and Nasa [Web site]. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast01oct_1.htm.
Sochaczewski, (2006, May 31). What's the link between astronauts and osteoporosis. International Osteoporosis Foundation: Bone research in space symposium, June 2, IOF World Congress on Osteoporosis. Retrieved Sept. 18, 2008 from http://www.iofbonehealth.org/wco/2006/downloads/pre_congress_whats_the_link_between.pdf.
Tortora, G.J., & Derrikson, B. (2006). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 11th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
When the body is weightless (or immobile), bone cells act differently. The International Osteoporosis Foundation states that astronauts and bedridden patients share a state in which they "can lose up to 15% of mineral density within three months" (Sochaczewski, 2006). According to NASA, the weightlessness upsets the balance of bone-building to bone destroying (Hullander & Barry, 2001.) Thirty million people on Earth who suffer from osteoporosis in the U.S.A. happen to be going through the same demineralization of the bone, although slower (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006, p. 189). The key to prevent osteoporosis on land and in space appears to be continual weight-bearing exercise on the body.
Once safe on the forest moon Endor, Luke should perform plenty of squats or he might begin to look more like Yoda.
References
Hullander, D. & Barry, P.L. (2001). Space Bones. Science and Nasa [Web site]. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast01oct_1.htm.
Sochaczewski, (2006, May 31). What's the link between astronauts and osteoporosis. International Osteoporosis Foundation: Bone research in space symposium, June 2, IOF World Congress on Osteoporosis. Retrieved Sept. 18, 2008 from http://www.iofbonehealth.org/wco/2006/downloads/pre_congress_whats_the_link_between.pdf.
Tortora, G.J., & Derrikson, B. (2006). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 11th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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